Middle Egyptian
The classical language of ancient Egypt β the prestige literary and monumental language from the Middle Kingdom onward, written in hieroglyphs and hieratic.
Overview
Middle Egyptian is the form of the ancient Egyptian language used during the Middle Kingdom (c. 2055β1650 BCE). It is the βclassicalβ stage of Egyptian, analogous to Classical Latin or Attic Greek β the prestige literary and monumental language that continued to be used for religious and formal purposes long after it ceased to be a spoken vernacular. The vast majority of Egyptβs most famous texts β including the Pyramid Textsβ later editions, temple inscriptions, and literary masterpieces β were written in Middle Egyptian.[1]
Writing System
Middle Egyptian was written in three scripts:
- Hieroglyphic β The monumental script carved on temples and tombs; a mixture of logographic, syllabic, and alphabetic signs
- Hieratic β The cursive βpriestlyβ script used on papyrus for administrative and literary texts
- The Egyptian βalphabetβ β A subset of 24 uniliteral signs that represent single consonants; students typically learn these first[1]
Egyptian writing did not normally indicate vowels, so the pronunciation of ancient Egyptian is reconstructed through Coptic (the final stage of the language, written in a Greek-based alphabet with vowels) and other evidence.[1]
Grammar Highlights
- Triconsonantal roots β Like other Afroasiatic languages, Egyptian words are based on consonantal roots (typically 2β3 consonants)
- Verb forms β The sαΈm.f (βhe hearsβ) construction is the basic verbal form; sαΈm.n.f for past; sαΈm.αΈ«r.f for obligation
- Sentence structure β Primarily Verb-Subject-Object (VSO)
- Determinatives β Silent signs at the end of words that indicate semantic category (human, plant, abstract concept, etc.)[1]
Key Texts for Students
- The Story of Sinuhe β The masterpiece of Middle Egyptian literature; many grammars use it for reading practice
- The Eloquent Peasant β Nine speeches on social justice
- The Shipwrecked Sailor β A tale of adventure and magic
- Stela of Amenemhat β A widely used practice text for beginners[1]
Recommended Learning Path
- Learn the hieroglyphic signs (start with the 24 uniliterals, then common biliterals and triliterals)
- Work through a grammar (Allen or Hoch β see below)
- Read simple stelae and offering formulae
- Progress to literary texts (Sinuhe, Eloquent Peasant)
- Practice with the TLA digital corpus
Sample Text
Opening of the Story of Sinuhe:
πππ πͺπΏπ ππΏππ π π΄π π π ±πππjrj.pat αΈ₯κ£tj-κ₯ smr wκ₯tj jmj-rκ£ αΈ«κ£swt nt αΈ₯qκ£ m tκ£w Stj.w
βThe hereditary prince, count, sole companion, overseer of the foreign lands of the ruler in the lands of the Asiaticsβ
The Story of Sinuhe is widely regarded as the masterpiece of Middle Egyptian literature β a first-person narrative of exile and return that was copied by scribes for centuries as a model of fine literary style.
Learning Resources
Textbooks & Grammars
- James P. Allen, Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs (3rd ed., Cambridge) β The most widely used textbook; excellent and comprehensive
- James E. Hoch, Middle Egyptian Grammar β Popular alternative, especially in North American universities
- Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction β Scholarly linguistic overview of all stages
- Alan Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar (3rd ed.) β Classic reference grammar, still the most complete sign list
Online Resources
- Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae (TLA) β The principal digital corpus of Egyptian texts
- JSesh β Free hieroglyphic text editor
- Digital Egypt for Universities (UCL) β Encyclopedic resource
- UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology β Peer-reviewed scholarly articles
- Sign List (Gardinerβs) β Online hieroglyphic sign dictionary
Courses & Communities
- Many universities offer Middle Egyptian (check Egyptology departments at Chicago, Yale, Oxford, Leiden, Berlin)
- r/AncientEgyptian β Reddit community for learners
- YouTube: Dr. Foy Scalf (Oriental Institute) and others offer introductory lectures
References
- β *James P. Allen, Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs*** (3rd ed., Cambridge) β The most widely used textbook; excellent and comprehensive
- β *James E. Hoch, Middle Egyptian Grammar*** β Popular alternative, especially in North American universities
- β *Antonio Loprieno, Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction*** β Scholarly linguistic overview of all stages
- β *Alan Gardiner, Egyptian Grammar*** (3rd ed.) β Classic reference grammar, still the most complete sign list
- β Thesaurus Linguae Aegyptiae (TLA) β The principal digital corpus of Egyptian texts https://thesaurus-linguae-aegyptiae.de/
- β JSesh β Free hieroglyphic text editor https://jsesh.qenherkhopeshef.org/
- β Digital Egypt for Universities (UCL) β Encyclopedic resource https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/
- β UCLA Encyclopedia of Egyptology β Peer-reviewed scholarly articles https://uee.cdh.ucla.edu/